Size-Dependent Scaling of Stingless Bee Flight Metabolism Reveals an Energetic Benefit to Small Body Size

Understanding the effect of body size on flight costs is critical for the development of models of aerodynamics and animal energetics. Prior scaling studies that have shown that flight costs scale hypometrically have focused primarily on larger (>100mg) insects and birds, but most flying species are smaller. We studied the flight physiology of 13 stingless bee species over a large range of body sizes (1-115mg). Metabolic rate during hovering scaled hypermetrically (scaling slope = 2.11). Larger bees had warm thoraxes, while small bees were nearly ecothermic; however, even controlling for body temperature variation, flightmetabolic rate scaled hypermetrically across this clade. Despite having a lower mass-specificmetabolic rate during flight, smaller bees could carry the same proportional load. Wingbeat frequency did not vary with body size, in contrast to most studies that find wingbeat frequency increases as body size decreases. Smaller stingless bees have a greater relative forewing surface area, which may help them reduce the energy requirements needed to fly. Further, we hypothesize that the relatively larger heads of smaller species may change their body pitch in flight. Synthesizing across all flying insects, we demonstrate that the scaling of flight metabolic rate changes from hypermetric to hypometric at ∼58mg body mass with hypermetic scaling below (slope = 1.2) and hypometric scaling (slope = 0.67) >58mg in body mass. The reduced cost of flight likely provides selective advantages for the evolution of small body size in insects. The biphasic scaling of flight metabolic rates and wingbeat frequencies in insects supports the hypothesis that the scaling of metabolic rate is closely related to the power requirements of locomotion and cycle frequencies.