Understanding the role of the built and social environments in outcomes of stops by police in San Diego, California

Few studies have examined the connection between the ecological structure of neighborhoods and policing activities during pedestrian and traffic stops—the most frequent types of interactions between police and the public in the U.S. This study aims to fill that gap using data from multiple sources collected in San Diego, California. Using a Heckman-Probit model, we test how built and social environment attributes are associated with the probability of a stop resulting in a consent search—which may reflect an officer’s reasonable suspicion toward the person being stopped—and with the likelihood of finding no contraband after a search, an indicator of potential overpolicing. The results suggest that individuals stopped in neighborhoods with higher percentages of Hispanic and African American residents, poverty rates, and higher crime levels are more likely to be searched but less likely to be found with contraband. In contrast, stops in areas with higher densities of transit stops, alcohol outlets, and vacant housing units are not necessarily associated with increased search rates. However, stops near transit-dense locations are associated with lower probabilities of discovering contraband. The paper concludes with research and policy implications aimed at reducing place-based biases in policing practices.