Re-envisioning par for the course: an assessment of desert golf sustainability from a landscape perspective

Despite providing valuable ecosystem services (benefits people derive from nature), desert golf courses consume enormous amounts of water and can exacerbate water scarcity in drylands. Yet, few studies have assessed the sustainability of desert golf from a landscape sustainability perspective, which centers on the linkages among landscape pattern, ecosystem services, and human well-being. Focusing on the Phoenix Metropolitan Area (PMA) of USA, a global golf epicenter, this study investigated the relationships among golf course spatial pattern, water use, ecosystem services, and environmental justice. Our analysis revealed that there are 210 golf courses in the PMA, together making up roughly 3.5% of total regional water demand. Furthermore, we found that people from high-income brackets have greater access to the benefits provided by golf courses than those in low-income brackets. To improve desert golf sustainability, we need to design courses that use less water and provide a wider range of ecosystem services beyond the game of golf, including climate regulating services and cultural services. Golf courses should be considered explicitly in sustainable landscape design, with particular emphasis on the diversity and accessibility of ecosystem services they provide in a regional context.